Research has shown that specific portions of the brain are responsible for memory. The term “memory” is generally used to refer to the ability of the human brain to acquire, manipulate, process, and store information from the environment.
Memory is divided into three types: short-term, long-term, and working memory. Research tells us that short-term memory lasts approximately 20 seconds. Information from the environment is accepted into short-term memory, where it is quickly assessed and, if needed, transferred to working memory. Finally, if it has been decided the final information is worth saving for later use, it is moved into long-term memory for permanent storage and later retrieval according to individual schemata - a fancy term for the brain's filing system.
Working memory is a theoretical framework that refers to a temporary storage area for information in the brain. It has been defined as the ability to hold and manipulate information in the brain over short periods of time. Some believe that short-term memory combines somewhat with learning, reasoning, and comprehension to create what is called working memory. This theory is based on the concepts that working memory is not one process, but is made up of several separate processes. The capacity to use working memory can be limited by many things, including task difficulty or environmental distractions.
Researchers have started to tie working memory to long-term memory. Some are trying to prove that the task of placing several pieces of related information into meaningful groups, or chunks, may allow us to recall larger amounts of information at a time. We accomplish this by using information held in working memory as cues for retrieval. Others perceive working memory as being a part of long-term memory, and made up of two components: the focus of attention and several representations from long-term memory. In this regard, any number of long-term representations can be present at one time, but the focus of attention and resultant processing move through one item at a time.
Memory Difficulties
Performing more than one mental task at a time requires quite a bit of working memory capacity. Multitasking ability varies between people, but it is generally understood that people are not very adept at performing more than one cognitive task at a time, as working memory can easily be overloaded. Experience and automaticity in some tasks appear to help multitasking ability. When there is a problem in any part of the memory systems, human ability to perform even the simplest task will tend to decline.
Working memory capacity is often tested by using memory span tasks, such as those offered in the Weschler Intelligence Scales for Children IV (WISC-IV). Most of these tasks require a child to hear or read groups of information. The child must then recite the information in a specified way, such as a series of numbers in the reverse order than they were given.
Some memory problems are caused by brain abnormalities, medical issues such as cancer,stroke, or head injury, or by personal issues such as stress or alcohol abuse. However, in many instances the cause of memory problems is completely unknown. Memory problems often cause difficulties in several other areas, including problem-solving, comprehension, and language acquisition. Children with short-term memory problems may appear to know something one minute, but not be able to recall the same information a few minutes later. Working memory requires attention, and any disruption in the focus of attention will likely cause a complete loss of the information in working memory at the time of the disruption.
The areas affected by memory deficits and the resulting learning difficulties are determined by individual strengths and weaknesses in the three memory areas. Some warning signs of memory deficits may include: trouble following lengthy directions, difficulty staying on topic during conversations,reading comprehension problems, or difficulty with multi-step math problems.
It is generally stated that there are six main categories of processing deficits, with some sub-categories under hearing, seeing, and speaking. The following list is not all-inclusicve by any means! There are hundreds of ways that these processing deficits can manifest themselves in children. This is only meant to offer you an idea of the wide variety of processing issues that a child may have to cope with on a daily basis.
Processing what we hear.
Processing what we see (visual).
How we speak (language).
Spatial Orientation (the way things are perceived in the environment) - a child may lose materials, have difficulty with oral reading, or be unable to judge time.
Visual motor integration - a child may have problems in test taking, show difficulty copying from board or book, or have poor written work.
Dysgraphia (letter formation) - a child may not be able to form letters correctly, making it extremely for anyone to read their writing
Auditory Sequencing - a child may show confusion with number sequences or lists.
Auditory Memory - a child may have difficulty remembering what was heard or important items, or she may spell poorly.
Auditory Discrimination - a child may often seem to misunderstand, or he may seem to hear but not to listen.
Auditory Figure Ground - a child may have trouble hearing sounds over background noises.
Visual Sequencing - a child may lose her place easily, have problems reading , or may have difficulty with equations.
Visual Memory - a child may have difficulty remembering what was seen, or have low reading comprehension.
Visual Figure Ground - a child may have trouble seeing an image on a background, or following a line of print while reading.
Visual Discrimination - a child may have difficulty seeing the difference between two similar objects
Expressive Language - a child may have difficulty expressing themselves, or he may sound "cynical".
Receptive Language - a child may appears to be "not listening", or hand in incomplete work.
Education and Memory Deficits
Memory and processing deficits interfere with the way information is understood. Working memory is very important, as it is the place where information is assessed, categorized, manipulated, and processed. Without working memory, we would not be able to solve problems or understand language. The ability to quickly and accurately process and comprehend information is necessary in daily classroom activities. Working memory deficits appear to be the largest contributor to learning difficulties in language, literacy, and mathematics. The effects of memory deficits on children can be as individual as the children themselves.
Children with poor memory skills are often described as inconsistent and may even be referred for learning disability or behavioral evaluations. If a child can not retain information long enough to process it adequately, then the information may not be retained or may be incorrect upon later retrieval. Reading comprehension depends a great deal on working memory capacity. Some children can read the words, but they are not able to make sense of the completed sentence or paragraph, as information becomes lost during the reading. Acquiring complex skills will be a slow and difficult process for these children.
Baseline educational assessments address what a child already knows, and results are likely influenced by prior education or socioeconomic status. Working memory test results generally are unaffected by either of these factors. There is often a correlation between low scores on standardized education tests and suspected working memory deficits. It appears that the most efficient way of determining children who may be at risk would be to combine knowledge testing and ability testing, such as that for working memory.
Educational Support
As in many other areas of learning difficulties today, the number of children with confirmed memory deficits is increasing. It makes perfect sense that there will also be an increasing need for instructor support. Offering teacher inservice programs on common memory deficits would provide a broad understanding of what a teacher may encounter in a classroom, and how best to cope with a child with weak memory skills.
Supporting these students in our classrooms is an absolute must for their success. Reducing loads on working memory may help improve working memory skills. There are many ways to accomplish this, including using external memory aids, reducing task length, and using brief, simple instructions whenever possible. Reviewing frequently, in short sessions, and in a variety of ways is generally regarded as a good way to improve and build memory skills. Many strategies that are commonly used with exceptional students can also be applied with success to those with working memory deficits. Some of these may include breaking instructions down into small steps, posting frequently used information for reference, and allowing extra time for assignments and tests. Most of the strategies that are suggested are easily incorporated into the everyday routines of a classroom.
Beyond the difficulties with actual learning processes, memory deficits can also impact individual behavior in the classroom. For some children with memory deficits, frequent failure to complete other tasks correctly causes additional frustration. This may be seen as a disruption in general behavior as these children act out verbally or physically, or show disrespect to their teachers or to other students. Supporting these students may require modification of other classroom tasks to ensure at least partial success, and reduce the frustration of repeated failures. Offer these children routine tasks regularly, so the tasks are easily recognized and performed without producing an overload on working memory.
Conclusion
Memory deficits, especially those of working memory, can be responsible for a wide range of difficulties in both learning and behavior. As current research delves further into the theories of working memory, we should be able to see a deeper understanding of how learning is generally affected. Educators need to search for strategies and information that will allow us to support children with various memory deficits.
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